Patterns of Medical Care Cost by Service Type for Patients With Recurrent and De Novo Advanced Cancer.

OBJECTIVES: There is limited knowledge about the cost patterns of patients who receive a diagnosis of de novo and recurrent advanced cancers in the United States. METHODS: Data on patients who received a diagnosis of de novo stage IV or recurrent breast, colorectal, or lung cancer between 2000 and 2012 from 3 integrated health systems were used to estimate average annual costs for total, ambulatory, inpatient, medication, and other services during (1) 12 months preceding de novo or recurrent diagnosis (preindex) and (2) diagnosis month through 11 months after (postindex), from the payer perspective. Generalized linear regression models estimated costs adjusting for patient and clinical factors. RESULTS: Patients who developed a recurrence <1 year after their initial cancer diagnosis had significantly higher total costs in the preindex period than those with recurrence ≥1 year after initial diagnosis and those with de novo stage IV disease across all cancers (all P < .05). Patients with de novo stage IV breast and colorectal cancer had significantly higher total costs in the postindex period than patients with cancer recurrent in <1 year and ≥1 year (all P < .05), respectively. Patients in de novo stage IV and those with recurrence in ≥1 year experienced significantly higher postindex costs than the preindex period (all P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings reveal distinct cost patterns between patients with de novo stage IV, recurrent <1-year, and recurrent ≥1-year cancer, suggesting unique care trajectories that may influence resource use and planning. Future cost studies among patients with advanced cancer should account for de novo versus recurrent diagnoses and timing of recurrence to obtain estimates that accurately reflect these care pattern complexities.

Programmatic Costs of the Telehealth Ostomy Self-Management Training: An Application of Time-Driven Activity-Based Costing.

OBJECTIVES: Programmatic cost assessment of novel clinical interventions can inform their widespread dissemination and implementation. This study aimed to determine the programmatic costs of a telehealth Ostomy Self-Management Training (OSMT) intervention for cancer survivors using Time-Driven Activity-Based Costing (TDABC) methodology. METHODS: We demonstrated a step-by-step application of TDABC based on a process map with core OSMT intervention activities and associated procedures and determined resource use and costs, per unit procedure. We also assessed per-patient costs from a payer perspective and provided estimates of total hours and costs by personnel, activity, and procedure. RESULTS: The per-patient cost of the OSMT was $1758. Personnel time accounted for 91% of the total cost. Site supervisor and information technology technician time were the most expensive personnel resources. Telehealth technical and communication equipment accounted for 8% of the total cost. Intervention coordination and monitoring efforts represented most of the total time cost (62%), followed by the intervention delivery (35%). The procedures with the highest cost were communication via phone or virtual meetings (24%), email exchanges (18%), and telehealth session delivery (18%). CONCLUSIONS: Future efforts to replicate, disseminate, and implement the OSMT intervention should anticipate funding for nonclinical components of the intervention, including coordination and monitoring, and consider how these activities can be performed most efficiently. For institutions without established telemedicine programs, selection of videoconferencing platforms and adequate staffing for participant technical support should be considered. Our step-by-step application of TDABC serves as a case study demonstrating how interventionists can gather data on resource use and costs of intervention activities concurrently with their collection of trial data.

An Ostomy Self-management Telehealth Intervention for Cancer Survivors: Technology-Related Findings From a Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: An Ostomy Self-management Telehealth (OSMT) intervention by nurse educators and peer ostomates can equip new ostomates with critical knowledge regarding ostomy care. A telehealth technology assessment aim was to measure telehealth engineer support requirements for telehealth technology-related (TTR) incidents encountered during OSMT intervention sessions held via a secure cloud-based videoconferencing service, Zoom for Healthcare. OBJECTIVE: This paper examines technology-related challenges, issues, and opportunities encountered in the use of telehealth in a randomized controlled trial intervention for cancer survivors living with a permanent ostomy. METHODS: The Arizona Telemedicine Program provided telehealth engineering support for 105 OSMT sessions, scheduled for 90 to 120 minutes each, over a 2-year period. The OSMT groups included up to 15 participants, comprising 4-6 ostomates, 4-6 peer ostomates, 2 nurse educators, and 1 telehealth engineer. OSMT-session TTR incidents were recorded contemporaneously in detailed notes by the research staff. TTR incidents were categorized and tallied. RESULTS: A total of 97.1% (102/105) OSMT sessions were completed as scheduled. In total, 3 OSMT sessions were not held owing to non-technology-related reasons. Of the 93 ostomates who participated in OSMT sessions, 80 (86%) completed their OSMT curriculum. TTR incidents occurred in 36.3% (37/102) of the completed sessions with varying disruptive impacts. No sessions were canceled or rescheduled because of TTR incidents. Disruptions from TTR incidents were minimized by following the TTR incident prevention and incident response plans. CONCLUSIONS: Telehealth videoconferencing technology can enable ostomates to participate in ostomy self-management education by incorporating dedicated telehealth engineering support. Potentially, OSMT greatly expands the availability of ostomy self-management education for new ostomates. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02974634; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02974634.

Spending for Advanced Cancer Diagnoses: Comparing Recurrent Versus De Novo Stage IV Disease.

PURPOSE: Spending for patients with advanced cancer is substantial. Past efforts to characterize this spending usually have not included patients with recurrence (who may differ from those with de novo stage IV disease) or described which services drive spending. METHODS: Using SEER-Medicare data from 2008 to 2013, we identified patients with breast, colorectal, and lung cancer with either de novo stage IV or recurrent advanced cancer. Mean spending/patient/month (2012 US dollars) was estimated from 12 months before to 11 months after diagnosis for all services and by the type of service. We describe the absolute difference in mean monthly spending for de novo versus recurrent patients, and we estimate differences after controlling for type of advanced cancer, year of diagnosis, age, sex, comorbidity, and other factors. RESULTS: We identified 54,982 patients with advanced cancer. Before diagnosis, mean monthly spending was higher for recurrent patients (absolute difference: breast, $1,412; colorectal, $3,002; lung, $2,805; all P < .001), whereas after the diagnosis, it was higher for de novo patients (absolute difference: breast, $2,443; colorectal, $4,844; lung, $2,356; all P < .001). Spending differences were driven by inpatient, physician, and hospice services. Across the 2-year period around the advanced cancer diagnosis, adjusted mean monthly spending was higher for de novo versus recurrent patients (spending ratio: breast, 2.39 [95% CI, 2.05 to 2.77]; colorectal, 2.64 [95% CI, 2.31 to 3.01]; lung, 1.46 [95% CI, 1.30 to 1.65]). CONCLUSION: Spending for de novo cancer was greater than spending for recurrent advanced cancer. Understanding the patterns and drivers of spending is necessary to design alternative payment models and to improve value.

Evaluation of a Novel Financial Navigator Pilot to Address Patient Concerns about Medical Care Costs.

CONTEXT: Interventions are required that address patients' medically related financial needs. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate a Financial Navigator pilot addressing patients' concerns/needs regarding medical care costs in an integrated health care system. METHODS: Adults (aged ≥ 18 years) enrolled at Kaiser Permanente Northwest, who had a concern/need about medical care costs and received care in 1 of 3 clinical departments at the intervention or comparison clinic were recruited between August 1, 2016, and October 31, 2016. Baseline and 30-day follow-up participant surveys were administered to assess medical and nonmedical socioeconomic needs, satisfaction with medical care, and satisfaction with assistance with cost concerns. Physicians at both clinics were invited to complete a survey on medical care costs. We assessed participant characteristics and survey responses using descriptive statistics and 30-day change in satisfaction measures using multivariable linear regression models. RESULTS: Eighty-five intervention and 51 comparison participants completed the baseline survey. At baseline, intervention participants reported transportation (52.9%), housing (38.2%), and social isolation (32.4%) needs; comparison participants identified employment (33.3%), food (33.3%), and housing (33.3%) needs. Intervention participants reported higher satisfaction with care (p = 0.01) and higher satisfaction with cost concerns assistance (p = 0.01) vs comparison participants at 30-day follow-up, controlling for baseline responses. Although most physicians (80%) reported discussing medical care costs with their patients, only 18% reported knowing about their patients' financial well-being. CONCLUSION: We demonstrated the promise of a novel Financial Navigator pilot intervention to address medical care cost concerns and needs, and underscored the prevalence of nonmedical social needs in an economically vulnerable population.

Medical Care Costs for Recurrent versus De Novo Stage IV Cancer by Age at Diagnosis.

OBJECTIVE: To address the knowledge gap regarding medical care costs for advanced cancer patients, we compared costs for recurrent versus de novo stage IV breast, colorectal, and lung cancer patients. DATA SOURCES/STUDY SETTING: Virtual Data Warehouse (VDW) information from three Kaiser Permanente regions: Colorado, Northwest, and Washington. STUDY DESIGN: We identified patients aged ≥21 with de novo or recurrent breast (nde novo  = 352; nrecurrent  = 765), colorectal (nde novo  = 1,072; nrecurrent  = 542), and lung (nde novo  = 4,041; nrecurrent  = 340) cancers diagnosed 2000-2012. We estimated average total monthly and annual costs in the 12 months preceding, month of, and 12 months following the index de novo/recurrence date, stratified by age at diagnosis (<65, ≥65). Generalized linear repeated-measures models controlled for demographics and comorbidity. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: In the pre-index period, monthly costs were higher for recurrent than for de novo breast (<65: +$2,431; ≥65: +$1,360), colorectal (<65: +$3,219; ≥65: +$2,247), and lung cancer (<65: +$3,086; ≥65: +$2,260) patients. Conversely, during the index and post-index periods, costs were higher for de novo patients. Average total annual pre-index costs were five- to ninefold higher for recurrent versus de novo patients <65. CONCLUSIONS: Cost differences by type of advanced cancer and by age suggest heterogeneous patterns of care that merit further investigation.

Factors Contributing To Geographic Variation In End-Of-Life Expenditures For Cancer Patients.

Health care spending in the months before death varies across geographic areas but is not associated with outcomes. Using data from the prospective multiregional Cancer Care Outcomes Research and Surveillance Consortium (CanCORS) study, we assessed the extent to which such variation is explained by differences in patients' sociodemographic factors, clinical factors, and beliefs; physicians' beliefs; and the availability of services. Among 1,132 patients ages sixty-five and older who were diagnosed with lung or colorectal cancer in 2003-05, had advanced-stage cancer, died before 2013, and were enrolled in fee-for-service Medicare, mean expenditures in the last month of life were $13,663. Physicians in higher-spending areas reported less knowledge about and comfort with treating dying patients and less positive attitudes about hospice, compared to those in lower-spending areas. Higher-spending areas also had more physicians and fewer primary care providers and hospices in proportion to their total population than lower-spending areas did. Availability of services and physicians' beliefs, but not patients' beliefs, were important in explaining geographic variations in end-of-life spending. Enhanced training to better equip physicians to care for patients at the end of life and strategic resource allocation may have potential for decreasing unwarranted variation in care.

Development, Validation, and Dissemination of a Breast Cancer Recurrence Detection and Timing Informatics Algorithm.

Background: This study developed, validated, and disseminated a generalizable informatics algorithm for detecting breast cancer recurrence and timing using a gold standard measure of recurrence coupled with data derived from a readily available common data model that pools health insurance claims and electronic health records data. Methods: The algorithm has two parts: to detect the presence of recurrence and to estimate the timing of recurrence. The primary data source was the Cancer Research Network Virtual Data Warehouse (VDW). Sixteen potential indicators of recurrence were considered for model development. The final recurrence detection and timing models were determined, respectively, by maximizing the area under the ROC curve (AUROC) and minimizing average absolute error. Detection and timing algorithms were validated using VDW data in comparison with a gold standard recurrence capture from a third site in which recurrences were validated through chart review. Performance of this algorithm, stratified by stage at diagnosis, was compared with other published algorithms. All statistical tests were two-sided. Results: Detection model AUROCs were 0.939 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.917 to 0.955) in the training data set (n = 3370) and 0.956 (95% CI = 0.944 to 0.971) and 0.900 (95% CI = 0.872 to 0.928), respectively, in the two validation data sets (n = 3370 and 3961, respectively). Timing models yielded average absolute prediction errors of 12.6% (95% CI = 10.5% to 14.5%) in the training data and 11.7% (95% CI = 9.9% to 13.5%) and 10.8% (95% CI = 9.6% to 12.2%) in the validation data sets, respectively, and were statistically significantly lower by 12.6% (95% CI = 8.8% to 16.5%, P < .001) than those estimated using previously reported timing algorithms. Similar covariates were included in both detection and timing algorithms but differed substantially from previous studies. Conclusions: Valid and reliable detection of recurrence using data derived from electronic medical records and insurance claims is feasible. These tools will enable extensive, novel research on quality, effectiveness, and outcomes for breast cancer patients and those who develop recurrence.

Medical Care Costs Associated With Cancer in Integrated Delivery Systems.

Background: The high economic burden of cancer is projected to continue growing. Cost-of-care estimates are key inputs for comparative effectiveness and economic analyses that aim to inform policies associated with cancer care. Existing estimates are based largely on SEER-Medicare data in the elderly, leaving a knowledge gap regarding costs for patients aged <65 years. Methods: We estimated total and net medical care costs using data on individuals diagnosed with breast, colorectal, lung, or prostate cancer (n=45,522) and noncancer controls (n=314,887) enrolled in 1 of 4 participating health plans. Net costs were defined as the difference in mean total costs between patients with cancer and controls. The phase-of-care approach and Kaplan-Meier Sample Average method were used to estimate mean total and net 1- and 5-year costs (in 2015 US dollars) by cancer site, stage at diagnosis, and age group (<65 and ≥65 years). Results: Total and net costs were consistently highest for lung cancer and lowest for prostate cancer. Net costs were higher across all cancer sites for patients aged <65 years than those aged ≥65 years. Medical care costs for all cancers increased with advanced stage at diagnosis. Conclusions: This study improves understanding of medical care costs for the 4 most common invasive cancers in the United States. Higher costs among patients aged <65 years highlight limitations of relying on SEER-Medicare data alone to understand the national burden of cancer, whereas higher costs for patients with advanced-stage cancer underscore the importance of early detection to curtail high long-term costs. These cost estimates can be used in the development and evaluation of interventions and policies across the cancer care continuum.

Older adults' readiness to engage with eHealth patient education and self-care resources: a cross-sectional survey.

BACKGROUND: This study examined access to digital technologies, skills and experience, and preferences for using web-based and other digital technologies to obtain health information and advice among older adults in a large health plan. A primary aim was to assess the extent to which digital divides by race/ethnicity and age group might affect the ability of a large percentage of seniors, and especially those in vulnerable groups, to engage with online health information and advice modalities (eHIA) and mobile health (mHealth) monitoring tools. METHODS: A mailed survey was conducted with age-sex stratified random samples of English-speaking non-Hispanic white, African-American/black (black), Hispanic/Latino (Latino), Filipino-American (Filipino), and Chinese-American (Chinese) Kaiser Permanente Northern California members who were aged 65-79 years. Respondent data were weighted to the study population for the cross-sectional analyses. RESULTS: Older seniors and black, Latino, and Filipino seniors have less access to digital tools, less experience performing a variety of online tasks, and are less likely to believe that they would be capable of going online for health information and advice compared to younger and white Non-Hispanic seniors. Consequently, they are also less likely to be interested in using eHIA modalities. CONCLUSIONS: The same subgroups of seniors that have previously been shown to have higher prevalence of chronic conditions and greater difficulties with healthcare access are also less likely to adopt use of eHIA and mHealth monitoring technologies. At the patient population level, this digital divide is important to take into account when planning health information and chronic disease management programs. At the individual patient level, to provide good patient-centered care, it is important for providers to assess rather than assume digital access, eHealth skills, and preferences prior to recommending use of web-based resources and mHealth tools.

Determining the Time of Cancer Recurrence Using Claims or Electronic Medical Record Data.

PURPOSE: Data from claims and electronic medical records (EMRs) are frequently used to identify clinical events (eg, cancer diagnosis, stroke). However, accurately determining the time of clinical events can be challenging, and the methods used to generate time estimates are underdeveloped. We sought to develop an approach to determine the time of a clinical event-cancer recurrence-using high-dimensional longitudinal structured data. METHODS: Manual chart abstraction provided information regarding the actual time of cancer recurrence. These data were linked to claims from Medicare or structured EMR data from the Cancer Research Network, which were used to determine time of recurrence for patients with lung or colorectal cancer. We analyzed the longitudinal profile of codes that could help determine the time of recurrence, adjusted for systematic differences between code dates and recurrence dates, and integrated time estimates from different codes to empirically derive an optimal algorithm. RESULTS: We identified twelve code groups that could help determine the time of recurrence. Using claims data for patients with lung cancer, the optimal algorithm consisted of three code groups and provided an average prediction error of 4.8 months. Using EMR data or applying this approach to patients with colorectal cancer yielded similar results. CONCLUSION: Time estimates were improved by selecting codes not necessarily the same as those used to identify recurrence, combining time estimates from multiple code groups, and adjusting for systematic bias between code dates and recurrence dates. Improving the accuracy of time estimates for clinical events can facilitate research, quality measurement, and process improvement.

Costs of an ostomy self-management training program for cancer survivors.

OBJECTIVE: To measure incremental expenses to an oncologic surgical practice for delivering a community-based, ostomy nurse-led, small-group, behavior skills-training intervention to help bladder and colorectal cancer survivors understand and adjust to their ostomies and improve their health-related quality of life, as well as assist family caregivers to understand survivors' needs and provide appropriate supportive care. METHODS: The intervention was a 5-session group behavior skills training in ostomy self-management following the principles of the Chronic Care Model. Faculty included Wound, Ostomy, and Continence Nurses (WOCNs) using an ostomy care curriculum. A gender-matched peer-in-time buddy was assigned to each ostomy survivor. The 4-session survivor curriculum included the following: self-management practice and solving immediate ostomy concerns; social well-being; healthy lifestyle; and a booster session. The single family caregiver session was coled by a WOCN and an ostomy peer staff member and covered relevant caregiver and ostomate support issues. Each cohort required 8 weeks to complete the intervention. Nonlabor inputs included ostomy supplies, teaching materials, automobile mileage for WOCNs, mailing, and meeting space rental. Intervention personnel were employed by the University of Arizona. Labor expenses included salaries and fringe benefits. RESULTS: The total incremental expense per intervention cohort of 4 survivors was $7246 or $1812 per patient. CONCLUSIONS: A WOCN-led group self-help ostomy survivorship intervention provided affordable, effective, care to cancer survivors with ostomies.

Participation in Activities Associated With Quality of Life for Long-Term Survivors of Rectal Cancer.

CONTEXT: Cancer patients' participation in social, recreational, and civic activities is strongly associated with quality of life (QOL), but these activities are not well integrated into cancer survivorship research or interventions. OBJECTIVE: Test the hypothesis that for long-term (≥ 5 years) survivors of rectal cancer, clinical factors (type of surgery and bowel function) are associated with long-term participation in activities and that participation in activities is associated with long-term QOL. DESIGN: Observational study with longitudinal and cross-sectional components. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Participation in activities and QOL. Tumor registry records were used to identify patients and obtain clinical data; surveys assessed participation and QOL. Using general linear models, we analyzed participation in activities in relation to type of surgery and bowel function after adjustment for potential confounders. We analyzed overall QOL relative to participation in activities after adjustment. RESULTS: A total of 567 rectal cancer survivors completed a mailed questionnaire. Overall response rate was 61%. The type of operation (p < 0.0001), receipt of radiation therapy (p = 0.002), and bowel function (p < 0.0001) were associated with participation in activities. Participation in activities was the strongest predictor of QOL (p < 0.0001), explaining 20% of the variance (R2) in QOL, with all other variables together accounting for another 18% of the variance. CONCLUSION: The importance of participation in activities on rectal cancer survivors' QOL is underappreciated. We recommend revising QOL instruments used in cancer care and research to include questions about participation in activities. Interventions should address maintenance of preferred activities and adoption of new, fulfilling activities.

Differences in Access to and Preferences for Using Patient Portals and Other eHealth Technologies Based on Race, Ethnicity, and Age: A Database and Survey Study of Seniors in a Large Health Plan.

BACKGROUND: Patients are being encouraged to go online to obtain health information and interact with their health care systems. However, a 2014 survey found that less than 60% of American adults aged 65 and older use the Internet, with much lower usage among black and Latino seniors compared with non-Hispanic white seniors, and among older versus younger seniors. OBJECTIVE: Our aims were to (1) identify race/ethnic and age cohort disparities among seniors in use of the health plan's patient portal, (2) determine whether race/ethnic and age cohort disparities exist in access to digital devices and preferences for using email- and Web-based modalities to interact with the health care system, (3) assess whether observed disparities in preferences and patient portal use are due simply to barriers to access and inability to use the Internet, and (4) learn whether older adults not currently using the health plan's patient portal or website have a potential interest in doing so in the future and what kind of support might be best suited to help them. METHODS: We conducted two studies of seniors aged 65-79 years. First, we used administrative data about patient portal account status and utilization in 2013 for a large cohort of English-speaking non-Hispanic white (n=183,565), black (n=16,898), Latino (n=12,409), Filipino (n=11,896), and Chinese (n=6314) members of the Kaiser Permanente Northern California health plan. Second, we used data from a mailed survey conducted in 2013-2014 with a stratified random sample of this population (final sample: 849 non-Hispanic white, 567 black, 653 Latino, 219 Filipino, and 314 Chinese). These data were used to examine race/ethnic and age disparities in patient portal use and readiness and preferences for using digital communication for health-related purposes. RESULTS: Adults aged 70-74 and 75-79 were significantly less likely than 65-69 year olds to be registered to use the patient portal, and among those registered, to have used the portal to send messages, view lab test results, or order prescription refills. Across all age groups, non-Hispanic whites and Chinese seniors were significantly more likely than black, Latino, and Filipino seniors to be registered and to have performed these actions. The survey found that black, Latino, and Filipino seniors and those 75 years old and older were significantly less likely to own digital devices (e.g., computers, smartphones), use the Internet and email, and be able and willing to use digital technology to perform health care-related tasks, including obtaining health information, than non-Hispanic whites, Chinese, and younger seniors (aged 65-69), respectively. The preference for using non-digital modalities persisted even among Internet users. CONCLUSIONS: Health plans, government agencies, and other organizations that serve diverse groups of seniors should include social determinants such as race/ethnicity and age when monitoring trends in eHealth to ensure that eHealth disparities do not induce greater health status and health care disparities between more privileged and less privileged groups.

Dartmouth Atlas Area-Level Estimates of End-of-Life Expenditures: How Well Do They Reflect Expenditures for Prospectively Identified Advanced Lung Cancer Patients?

OBJECTIVE: Assess validity of the retrospective Dartmouth hospital referral region (HRR) end-of-life spending measures by comparing with health care expenditures from diagnosis to death for prospectively identified advanced lung cancer patients. DATA/SETTING/DESIGN: We calculated health care spending from diagnosis (2003-2005) to death or through 2011 for 885 patients aged ≥65 years with advanced lung cancer using Medicare claims. We assessed the association between Dartmouth HRR-level spending in the last 2 years of life and patient-level spending using linear regression with random HRR effects, adjusting for patient characteristics. FINDINGS: For each $1 increase in the Dartmouth metric, spending for our cohort increased by $0.74 (p < .001). The Dartmouth spending variable explained 93.4 percent of the HRR-level variance in observed spending. CONCLUSIONS: HRR-level spending estimates for deceased patient cohorts reflect area-level care intensity for prospectively identified advanced lung cancer patients.

Self-reported depression and perceived financial burden among long-term rectal cancer survivors.

OBJECTIVES: Types of surgery for rectal cancer (RC), including permanent ostomy (PO) or temporary ostomy followed by anastomosis (TO) or initial anastomosis (AN), can affect psychological and financial well-being during active treatment. However, these relationships have not been well studied among long-term survivors (≥5 years post-diagnosis). METHODS: A mailed survey with 576 long-term RC survivors who were members of Kaiser Permanente was conducted in 2010-2011. Prevalence of current depression was ascertained using a score of ≤45.6 on the Short Form-12 version 2 mental component summary. Perceived financial burden was assessed using a Likert scale ranging from 0 (none) to 10 (severe). Regression analyses were used to measure associations after adjustment for covariates. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of depression was 24% among RC survivors with the highest prevalence among those with a history of PO (31%). The adjusted odds of depression among TO and AN survivors were lower than that among PO survivors, 0.42 (CI95% 0.20-0.89) and 0.59 (CI95% 0.37-0.93), respectively. Twenty-two percent perceived moderate-to-high current financial burden (≥4 points). PO survivors also reported higher mean financial burden than AN survivors (2.6 vs. 1.6, respectively; p = 0.002), but perceived burden comparably to TO survivors (2.3). Self-reported depression was associated with higher perceived financial burden (p < 0.001); surgical procedure history did not modify this relationship. CONCLUSIONS: Depression was reported frequently among these long-term RC survivors, particularly among PO survivors. Depression was associated with greater perception of financial burden. Screening for depression and assessing financial well-being might improve care among long-term RC survivors.Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Did changes in drug reimbursement after the medicare modernization act affect chemotherapy prescribing?

PURPOSE: The Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act of 2003 (MMA) decreased fee-for-service (FFS) payments for outpatient chemotherapy. We assessed how this policy affected chemotherapy in FFS settings versus in integrated health networks (IHNs). PATIENTS AND METHODS: We examined 5,831 chemotherapy regimens for 3,613 patients from 2003 to 2006 with colorectal cancer (CRC) or lung cancers in the Cancer Care Outcomes Research Surveillance Consortium. Patients were from four geographically defined regions, seven large health maintenance organizations, and 15 Veterans Affairs Medical Centers. The outcome of interest was receipt of chemotherapy that included at least one drug for which reimbursement declined after the MMA. RESULTS: The odds of receiving an MMA-affected drug were lower in the post-MMA era: the odds ratio (OR) was 0.73 (95% CI, 0.59 to 0.89). Important differences across cancers were detected: for CRC, the OR was 0.65 (95% CI, 0.46 to 0.92); for non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC), the OR was 1.60 (95% CI, 1.09 to 2.35); and for small-cell lung cancer, the OR was 0.63 (95% CI, 0.34 to 1.16). After the MMA, FFS patients were less likely to receive MMA-affected drugs: OR, 0.73 (95% CI, 0.59 to 0.89). No pre- versus post-MMA difference in the use of MMA-affected drugs was detected among IHN patients: OR, 1.01 (95% CI, 0.66 to 1.56). Patients with CRC were less likely to receive an MMA-affected drug in both FFS and IHN settings in the post- versus pre-MMA era, whereas patients with NSCLC were the opposite: OR, 1.60 (95% CI, 1.09 to 2.35) for FFS and 6.33 (95% CI, 2.09 to 19.11) for IHNs post- versus pre-MMA. CONCLUSION: Changes in reimbursement after the passage of MMA appear to have had less of an impact on prescribing patterns in FFS settings than the introduction of new drugs and clinical evidence as well as other factors driving adoption of new practice patterns.

Advanced imaging among health maintenance organization enrollees with cancer.

PURPOSE: Fee-for-service (FFS) Medicare expenditures for advanced imaging studies (defined as computed tomography [CT], magnetic resonance imaging [MRI], positron emission tomography [PET] scans, and nuclear medicine studies [NM]) rapidly increased in the past two decades for patients with cancer. Imaging rates are unknown for patients with cancer, whether under or over age 65 years, in health maintenance organizations (HMOs), where incentives may differ. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Incident cases of breast, colorectal, lung, prostate, leukemia, and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) cancers diagnosed in 2003 and 2006 from four HMOs in the Cancer Research Network were used to determine 2-year overall mean imaging counts and average total imaging costs per HMO enrollee by cancer type for those under and over age 65. RESULTS: There were 44,446 incident cancer patient cases, with a median age of 75 (interquartile range, 71-81), and 454,029 imaging procedures were performed. The mean number of images per patient increased from 7.4 in 2003 to 12.9 in 2006. Rates of imaging were similar across age groups, with the exception of greater use of echocardiograms and NM studies in younger patients with breast cancer and greater use of PET among younger patients with lung cancer. Advanced imaging accounted for approximately 41% of all imaging, or approximately 85% of the $8.7 million in imaging expenditures. Costs were nearly $2,000 per HMO enrollee; costs for younger patients with NHL, leukemia, and lung cancer were nearly $1,000 more in 2003. CONCLUSION: Rates of advanced imaging appear comparable among FFS and HMO participants of any age with these six cancers.

Caregivers as healthcare managers: health management activities, needs, and caregiving relationships for colorectal cancer survivors with ostomies.

PURPOSE: While the burdens and rewards of cancer caregiving are well-documented, few studies describe the activities involved in cancer caregiving. We employed a social-ecological perspective to explore the work of cancer caregiving for long-term colorectal cancer (CRC) survivors with ostomies. We focused on healthcare management, defined here as the ways in which informal caregivers participate in healthcare-related activities such as managing medical appointments and information, obtaining prescriptions and supplies, and providing transportation to obtain healthcare services. METHODS: This ethnographic study included 31 dyads consisting of long-term CRC survivors (>5 years postsurgery) and their primary informal caregivers. Survivors were members of integrated healthcare delivery systems. We interviewed participants using in-depth interviews and followed a subset using ethnographic methods. Medical record data ascertained survivors' cancer and medical history. RESULTS: We classified families into a matrix of healthcare management resources (high vs. low) and survivors' healthcare needs (high vs. low). We found that patients' healthcare needs did not always correspond to their caregivers' management activities. CRC survivors with high needs had more unmet needs when caregivers and survivors differed in the level of caregiver involvement they desired or regarded as optimal. This discrepancy was particularly evident in nonmarital relationships. CONCLUSIONS: As cancer survivors age and grow in number, it becomes increasingly important to understand how informal caregivers support survivors' well-being. Framing healthcare management as a component of caregiving provides a useful perspective that could facilitate future research and interventions to support survivors, particularly those with significant sequelae from their cancer treatment.

Validating billing/encounter codes as indicators of lung, colorectal, breast, and prostate cancer recurrence using 2 large contemporary cohorts.

BACKGROUND: A substantial proportion of cancer-related mortality is attributable to recurrent, not de novo metastatic disease, yet we know relatively little about these patients. To fill this gap, investigators often use administrative codes for secondary malignant neoplasm or chemotherapy to identify recurrent cases in population-based datasets. However, these algorithms have not been validated in large, contemporary, routine care cohorts. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the validity of secondary malignant neoplasm and chemotherapy codes as indicators of recurrence after definitive local therapy for stage I-III lung, colorectal, breast, and prostate cancer. RESEARCH DESIGN, SUBJECTS, AND MEASURES: We assessed the sensitivity, specificity, and positive predictive value (PPV) of these codes 14 and 60 months after diagnosis using 2 administrative datasets linked with gold-standard recurrence status information: CanCORS/Medicare (diagnoses 2003-2005) and HMO/Cancer Research Network (diagnoses 2000-2005). RESULTS: We identified 929 CanCORS/Medicare patients and 5298 HMO/CRN patients. Sensitivity, specificity, and PPV ranged widely depending on which codes were included and the type of cancer. For patients with lung, colorectal, and breast cancer, the combination of secondary malignant neoplasm and chemotherapy codes was the most sensitive (75%-85%); no code-set was highly sensitive and highly specific. For prostate cancer, no code-set offered even moderate sensitivity (≤ 19%). CONCLUSIONS: Secondary malignant neoplasm and chemotherapy codes could not identify recurrent cancer without some risk of misclassification. Findings based on existing algorithms should be interpreted with caution. More work is needed to develop a valid algorithm that can be used to characterize outcomes and define patient cohorts for comparative effectiveness research studies.